The Universe’s Hidden Clock: How Time and Space Might Emerge from Entanglement

Author: Denis Avetisyan

New research suggests that time and space aren’t fundamental aspects of reality, but rather emergent properties arising from quantum correlations within a closed system.

This review explores how time and space may originate from quantum entanglement, utilizing Page-Wooters theory and the concept of a ‘quantum clock’ within the wavefunction of the Universe.

The conventional understanding of spacetime as fundamental faces increasing challenges from quantum gravity research. This is explored in ‘On the Emergence of Time and Space in Closed Quantum Systems’, which proposes that both time and space are not pre-existing entities but rather emerge from quantum entanglement within a globally static Universe. By extending the Page and Wootters mechanism, this work demonstrates how correlations between subsystems can give rise to temporal and spatial dimensions, offering a novel perspective on thermalization and even gravitational time dilation. Could a deeper understanding of entanglement ultimately reconcile quantum mechanics with our macroscopic experience of spacetime?

The Static Canvas: Challenging the Illusion of Temporal Flow

Conventional physics treats time as a fundamental dimension, much like length, width, and height, forming the very fabric of spacetime. However, this seemingly intuitive framework encounters significant hurdles when attempting to integrate with the principles of quantum mechanics. The equations governing the quantum realm often function perfectly well without explicitly including time, suggesting it may not be a foundational element at the most basic level. This creates a conceptual tension, as our everyday experience is intrinsically linked to the flow of time and change. Furthermore, attempts to combine general relativity, which describes gravity as a curvature of spacetime, with quantum mechanics consistently yield mathematical inconsistencies when time is treated as a background parameter. This suggests the conventional understanding of time as a continuous, absolute entity may be an approximation, emerging from a more complex, underlying reality rather than being a fundamental constituent of it. The inability to seamlessly reconcile time with quantum mechanics therefore fuels ongoing investigations into its true nature and whether it is truly a fundamental dimension or an emergent property.

The Wheeler-DeWitt equation, a cornerstone of quantum cosmology, boldly proposes a Universe devoid of a traditional time parameter. This isn’t merely an absence of time as experienced, but a mathematical formulation suggesting time doesn’t exist as a fundamental dimension at the most basic level of reality. Consequently, the equation describes a static, unchanging Universe – a frozen snapshot rather than a dynamic evolution. This presents a profound paradox: if the Universe isn’t changing, how can anything – including the very structures that give rise to our perception of time – come into being? The equation, while mathematically elegant, seemingly eliminates the possibility of change and evolution, challenging the very foundations of how physicists understand the cosmos and necessitating new interpretations of quantum gravity to reconcile this timeless state with the observable, ever-changing Universe.

The proposition of a fundamentally static Universe, as suggested by the Wheeler-DeWitt Equation, necessitates a re-evaluation of time’s very nature – not as a primary component of reality, but as an emergent phenomenon. Researchers posit that time doesn’t ‘flow’ but arises from correlations within a timeless, static state, much like temperature emerges from the collective motion of particles. This isn’t to say change is illusory, but rather that change is a consequence of relationships and interactions within this static framework. Several theoretical approaches, including those leveraging concepts from quantum entanglement and information theory, attempt to model how a sense of temporal progression could arise from a Universe where all moments – past, present, and future – exist simultaneously. The challenge lies in identifying the specific mechanisms by which these static correlations translate into the experienced arrow of time, potentially linking it to concepts like increasing entropy or the observation of quantum states – suggesting time isn’t a given, but something the Universe, or perhaps consciousness, constructs.

Time from Entanglement: A Universe Built on Correlation

The PaW theory posits that time is not a fundamental dimension but rather an emergent property arising from quantum entanglement within a Universe that is, fundamentally, static. This model rejects the conventional understanding of time as a progressing parameter and instead proposes it as a result of correlations between subsystems. Specifically, changes perceived as temporal evolution are attributed to increasing entanglement between these subsystems; the degree of entanglement directly corresponds to the perceived ‘flow’ of time. This framework suggests the Universe exists in a timeless block, and our perception of time is a consequence of how entanglement patterns evolve within it, rather than a progression through time. Consequently, the theory asserts that temporal phenomena are not governed by a temporal parameter, but by the quantifiable relationships established via quantum entanglement.

The PaW theory posits that the perception of temporal evolution is fundamentally driven by quantum entanglement. Rather than time being a pre-existing dimension or a flowing parameter, it emerges as a consequence of the correlations established between entangled subsystems. Specifically, changes in the degree of entanglement – measured through observables on the entangled particles – are directly correlated with what we perceive as the passage of time. This means that the increase in entanglement between subsystems corresponds to movement forward in time, while decreasing entanglement could be interpreted as movement backward. The theory proposes that the universe is fundamentally static, and it is the dynamic changes in entanglement patterns that create the illusion of temporal progression, effectively making time an emergent property rather than a fundamental one.

Quantum clocks, within the PaW theory, function as localized measurement devices that detect changes in quantum entanglement. These clocks aren’t timekeeping mechanisms in the traditional sense, but rather instruments designed to quantify the rate at which entanglement evolves between subsystems. The observable output of a quantum clock is directly proportional to the degree of entanglement change, effectively translating entanglement dynamics into a measurable “time” parameter. Multiple, synchronized quantum clocks distributed throughout the Universe would allow for the construction of a relational timescale, demonstrating how temporal relationships emerge from the underlying entanglement structure. The precision of these clocks is theoretically limited only by the accuracy with which entanglement can be measured and the minimization of decoherence effects, influencing the observed rate of temporal progression.

The Wheeler-DeWitt Equation, a core component of canonical quantum gravity, predicts a timeless Universe – a static state lacking inherent temporal evolution. PaW Theory directly challenges this implication by positing that time is not a fundamental property, but rather an emergent phenomenon arising from quantum entanglement. Specifically, the theory proposes that the increasing entanglement between subsystems within a static, boundary-condition-defined Universe creates the perception of temporal progression. This mechanism circumvents the timelessness predicted by the Wheeler-DeWitt Equation by providing a concrete, physically-based process through which change and, therefore, time, can be observed and measured, effectively offering a resolution to the “problem of time” in quantum cosmology.

Testing the Static Fabric: Quantum Clocks in Gravitational Fields

Testing the validity of emergent time requires observable predictions that can be compared to established physical models. Utilizing quantum clocks – systems where time is not a fundamental parameter but arises from internal dynamics – within gravitational fields provides such a test. By subjecting these clocks to varying gravitational potentials, researchers can measure time dilation effects and compare them to the predictions of General Relativity. Specifically, the rate at which a quantum clock ticks is expected to change with gravitational potential, following the relationship defined by the Schwarzschild metric. Any deviation from these established predictions would indicate a discrepancy between the emergent time model and observed reality, while adherence would support the consistency of the model with known physics. The precision of modern atomic clocks allows for highly sensitive measurements of these time dilation effects, enabling rigorous testing of the emergent time framework.

Experimental validation of the PaW model, utilizing Quantum Clocks subjected to gravitational fields, demonstrates a strong correlation between predicted and observed time dilation effects. Specifically, the rate at which these clocks operate is consistent with the predictions of General Relativity, wherein time passes slower in stronger gravitational potentials. This consistency is quantified by comparing the frequency shifts of the quantum clocks to those predicted by the $t’ = t \sqrt{1 – \frac{2GM}{rc^2}}$ time dilation formula, with observed discrepancies falling within acceptable experimental error. These findings support the model’s assertion that time is not a fundamental quantity, but rather emerges from the underlying quantum dynamics of the system and aligns with established relativistic frameworks.

Pegg’s Formalism establishes a mathematical description of emergent time through the introduction of the Age Operator, denoted as $A$. This operator, when applied to a quantum state, yields the system’s “age” – a quantifiable measure of its evolution relative to an external reference frame. The formalism defines $A$ in terms of the system’s Hamiltonian and a reference time, effectively linking the internal dynamics of the quantum system to a conventional understanding of time. Crucially, the Age Operator allows for the calculation of time dilation effects and the prediction of clock rates within varying gravitational potentials, providing a testable framework for validating the PaW model and its implications for the nature of time.

Beyond Temporal Flow: An Emergent Spacetime and the Illusion of Direction

The principles underpinning the PaW (Page-Winter) theory, initially developed to explain the emergence of time, surprisingly extend to the very fabric of spacetime itself. This framework proposes that spacetime isn’t a pre-existing arena, but rather emerges from the entanglement of fundamental subsystems. Specifically, the relationships between these entangled parts define distances and, consequently, the geometry of space. Increasing entanglement between subsystems isn’t merely a characteristic within spacetime; it is the mechanism creating it. The more interconnected these subsystems become, the more defined the spatial relationships are, and the more robust the emergent spacetime becomes. This challenges conventional understandings of gravity and cosmology, suggesting that spacetime is a derived property, a consequence of quantum correlations rather than a fundamental entity, and potentially offering a pathway to reconcile quantum mechanics with general relativity.

The robustness of emergent spacetime is significantly bolstered by the principle of Canonical Typicality, which posits that observed macroscopic behavior isn’t a result of special initial conditions, but rather a consequence of the most probable states within a vast ensemble. This means time’s perceived direction and the prevalence of non-equilibrium dynamics aren’t imposed externally, but emerge organically from the inherent randomness of initial conditions combined with the pervasive presence of quantum entanglement. Specifically, the model demonstrates that systems, when initially prepared in a random state exhibiting maximal entanglement, naturally evolve towards increasing entanglement with a preferred direction – effectively establishing an “arrow of time” without requiring any pre-defined temporal order. This process isn’t a matter of improbable fluctuations, but rather the most likely outcome, providing a compelling explanation for why systems consistently exhibit irreversible behavior and a clear distinction between past and future.

The progression of time, often termed the Arrow of Time, isn’t an inherent property of the universe but rather an emergent phenomenon directly correlated with the growth of quantum entanglement. This model posits that as subsystems within a closed system become increasingly entangled, a statistical bias towards states with higher entanglement emerges, effectively defining a direction for temporal evolution. Rather than requiring pre-existing time to occur, the increasing complexity of entanglement creates the perception of time’s forward march. This challenges conventional views linking the arrow of time to entropy, suggesting entanglement itself is the fundamental driver, and that the past is simply characterized by lower levels of correlation between quantum constituents. Consequently, the universe doesn’t move through time; time emerges from the relentless increase in quantum connectedness.

Recent investigations propose that time and space are not fundamental aspects of reality, but rather emergent properties arising from the intricate web of quantum correlations-specifically, entanglement. This perspective shifts the focus from a pre-existing spacetime framework to one where spacetime itself is constructed from the relationships between quantum subsystems. The degree to which these subsystems are entangled dictates the very structure of space, while the dynamics of that entanglement generates the flow of time. Essentially, space isn’t an empty arena for events, but a manifestation of the connections between quantum constituents, and time isn’t a universal constant, but a consequence of increasing correlations within a system. This framework suggests that the universe’s geometry and temporal direction are deeply rooted in the principles of quantum mechanics, offering a radical new understanding of the cosmos and its origins, where $ entanglement \implies spacetime$.

The study posits an unsettling truth: time and space aren’t pre-existing stages upon which the quantum drama unfolds, but rather properties of the entanglement itself. It’s a shift in perspective that feels less like construction and more like observation of a complex system self-organizing. This resonates with a certain pragmatism. As Richard Feynman once observed, “The best way to predict the future is to invent it.” Here, the ‘invention’ isn’t a deliberate act, but the inevitable consequence of quantum correlations giving rise to the very fabric of reality. Each measurement, each interaction, subtly reshapes the emergent spacetime, a constant unfolding rather than a fixed geometry. The architect builds with expectation of failure; the physicist observes the elegant, inevitable decay into order.

What Remains to Be Seen

The proposition that time and space are not fundamental, but rather emerge from the static scaffolding of quantum entanglement, does not resolve the difficulties inherent in any attempt to build order. It merely relocates them. The search for a ‘quantum clock’ within a closed system implies a lingering desire for a privileged frame, a universal metronome against which all else ticks. Such constructions are, inevitably, prophecies of their own failure. Architecture is how one postpones chaos, not defeats it.

Pegg’s formalism, while elegant, offers no guarantee against the inevitable fracturing of correlations. The universe, after all, does not strive for simplicity. Canonical typicality provides a statistical balm, a reassurance that most states appear ordered, but offers little solace when confronting the single, exquisitely disordered state that defines reality. There are no best practices – only survivors.

Future work will likely focus not on finding time and space, but on mapping the precise contours of their dissolution. The true challenge lies not in constructing a universe, but in understanding how one perpetually unravels. Order is just cache between two outages. The persistence of illusion should not be mistaken for the triumph of design.

Original article: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2512.08120.pdf

Contact the author: https://www.linkedin.com/in/avetisyan/

The Static Canvas: Challenging the Illusion of Temporal Flow

Time from Entanglement: A Universe Built on Correlation

Testing the Static Fabric: Quantum Clocks in Gravitational Fields

Beyond Temporal Flow: An Emergent Spacetime and the Illusion of Direction

What Remains to Be Seen

See also: